Palabras clave
interethnic variability
assortative mating
racism
ethnic discrimination
affirmative policies
raza
variabilidad interétnica
matrimonio selectivo
racismo
discriminación racial
políticas afirmativas
Cómo citar
Resumen
Son examinados los intentos pasados y presentes de clasificar y caracterizar a la variabilidad biológica humana, clasificar y caracterizar a la variabilidad biológica humana, considerando el concepto de raza, los problemas de identi- ficación étnica, el matrimonio selectivo basado en la etni- cidad, y la historia genética. En relación con la última, se hace una revisión de los métodos disponibles actualmente para la cuantificación de la mezcla y de los estudios pre- vios enfocados en la caracterización de la contribuciones parentales de origen continental a las poblaciones atinoamericanas, con énfasis en las evaluaciones globales de los acervos genéticos de de Brasil y Costa Rica. Final- mente, se considera el tema del racismo y la discrimina- ción, incluyendo la relación entre los derechos humanos y las acciones afirmativas. El derecho a iguales oportunida- des debe ser estrictamente respetado. La inequidad bioló- gica no tiene nada que ver con el principio ético de que la posición de cualquiera en una sociedad dada debe ser un re- flejo exacto de sus habilidades individuales.
Citas
Alves-Silva, J., M.S. Santos, P.E.M. Guimarães, A.C.S. Ferreira, H-J. Bandelt, S.D.J. Pena & V.F. Prado. 2000. The ancestry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 67: 444-461.
Bamshad, M.J., S. Wooding, W.S. Watkins, C.T. Ostler, M.A. Batzer & L.B. Jorde. 2003. Human population genetic structure and inference of group member- ship. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72: 578-589.
Barbujani, G. & C. Romualdi. 2001. Genetic variation within and among major human groups. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 13: 112-113.
Bernstein, F. 1931. Die geographische Verteilung der Blutgruppen und ihre anthropologische Bedeutung. p. 227-243. In Comitato Italiano per lo Studio dei Problemi della Populazione. Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, Roma.
Bertorelle, G. & L. Excoffier. 1998. Inferring admixture proportions from molecular data. Mol. Biol. Evol. 15: 1297-1311.
Bortolini, M.C., M.G. Thomas, L. Chikhi, J.A. Aguilar, D. Castro-de-Guerra, F.M. Salzano & A. Ruiz-Linares. 2004. Ribeiro’s typology, genomes, and Spanish colonialism, as viewed from Gran Canaria and Colombia. Genet. Mol. Biol. 27: 1-8.
Callegari-Jacques, S.M., D. Grattapaglia, F.M. Salzano, S.P. Salamoni, S.G. Crossetti, M.E. Ferreira & M.H. Hutz. 2003. Historical genetics – spatiotemporal analysis on the formation of the Brazilian population. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 15: 824-834.
Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. & W.F. Bodmer. 1971. The Genetics of Human Populations. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco.
Cavalli-Sforza, L.L. & M.W. Feldman. 2003. The application of molecular genetic approaches to the study of human evolution. Nature Genetics 33(suppl.): 266-275.
Carvajal-Carmona, L.G., I.D. Soto, N. Pineda, D. Ortíz- Barrientos, C. Duque, J. Ospina-Duque, M. McCarthy, P. Montoya, V.M. Alvarez, G. Bedoya & A. Ruiz-Linares. 2000. Strong Amerind/White sex bias and a possible Sephardic contribution among the founders of a population in northwest Colombia. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 67: 1287-1295.
Carvalho-Silva, D.R., F.R. Santos, J. Rocha & S.D.J. Pena. 2001. The phylogeography of Brazilian Y-chromo- some lineages. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 68: 281-286.
Cerda-Flores, R.M., M.C. Villalobos-Torres, H.A. Barrera-Saldaña, L.M. Cortés-Prieto, L.O. Barajas, F. Rivas, A. Carracedo, Y. Zhong, S.A. Barton & R. Chakraborty. 2002a. Genetic admixture in three Mexican Mestizo populations based on D1S80 and HLA-DQA1 loci. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 14: 257-263.
Cerda-Flores, R.M., B. Budowle, L. Jin, S.A. Barton, R. Deka & R. Chakraborty. 2002b. Maximum likeli- hood estimates of admixture in northeastern Mexico using 13 short tandem repeat loci. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 14: 429-439.
Cesar, R.C.L. 2003. Ações afirmativas no Brasil: e agora, doutor? Ciênc. Hoje 33(195): 26-32.
Chakraborty, R. 1975. Estimation of race admixture: a new method. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 42: 507-511.
Chikhi, L., M.W. Bruford & M.A. Beaumont. 2001. Estimation of admixture proportions: a likelihood- based approach using Markov chain Monte Carlo. Genetics 158: 1347-1362.
Colchester, M. 2002. Indigenous rights and the collective conscious. Anthropol. Today 18(1): 1-3.
Collins-Schramm, H.E., C.M. Phillips, D.J. Operario, J.S. Lee, J.L. Weber, R.L. Hanson, W.C. Knowler, R. Cooper, H.Li & M.F. Seldin. 2002. Ethnic-difference markers for use in mapping by admixture linkage disequilibrium. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 70: 737-750.
Comas, J. 1966. Manual de Antropología Física. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Mexico.
Dupanloup, I. & G. Bertorelle. 2001. Inferring admixture proportions from molecular data: extension to any
number of parental populations. Mol. Biol. Evol. 18: 672-675.
Domínguez, V.R. 1994. A taste for “the other”. Intelectual complicity in racializing practices. Curr. Anthropol.
: 333-348.
Elston, R.C. 1971. The estimation of admixture in racial hybrids. Ann. Hum. Genet. 35: 9-17.
Fernandez Cobo, M., D.V. Jobes, R. Yanagihara, V.R. Nerurkar, Y. Yamamura, C.F. Ryschkewitsch & G.L. Stoner. 2001. Reconstructing population history using JC virus: Amerinds, Spanish, and Africans in the ancestry of modern Puerto Ricans. Hum. Biol. 73: 385-402.
Gabriel, S.B., S.F. Schaffner, H. Nguyen, J.M. Moore, J. Roy, B. Blumenstiel, J. Higgins, M. DeFelice, A. Lochner, M. Faggart, S.N. Lin-Cordero, C. Rotimi, A. Adeyemo, R. Cooper, R. Ward, E.S. Lander, M.J. Daly & D. Altshuler. 2002. The structure of haplo- type blocks in the human genome. Science 296: 2225-2229.
Garn, S.M. 1971. Human Races. Charles C Thomas, Springfield. Heringer, R. 2002. Desigualdades raciais no Brasil: síntese de indicadores e desafios no campo das políticas públicas. Cad. Saúde Publ. 18(suppl.): 57-65.
Krieger, H., N.E. Morton, M.P. Mi, E. Azevêdo, A. Freire- Maia & N. Yasuda. 1965. Racial admixture in north-
eastern Brasil. Ann. Hum. Genet. 29: 113-125.
Long, J.C. & P.E. Smouse. 1983. Intertribal gene flow between the Ye’cuana and Yanomama: genetic
analysis of an admixed village. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 61: 411-422.
Marth, G., G. Schuler, R. Yeh, R. Davenport, R. Agarwala, D. Church, S. Wheelan, J. Baker, M. Ward, M. Kholodov, L. Phan, E. Czabarka, J. Murvai, D. Cutler, S. Wooding, A. Rogers, A. Chakravarti, H.C. Harpending, P-Y. Kwok & S.T. Sherry. 2003. Sequence variations in the public human genome data reflect a bottlenecked population history. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., USA 100: 376-381.
Martínez-Cruzado, J.C., G. Toro-Labrador, V. Ho-Fung, M.A. Estévez-Montero, A. Lobaina-Manzanet, D.A. Padovani-Claudio, H. Sánchez-Cruz, P. Ortiz- Bermúdez & A. Sánchez-Crespo. 2001. Mitochondrial DNA analysis reveals substantial Native American ancestry in Puerto Rico. Hum. Biol. 73: 491-511.
McKeigue, P.M., J. Carpenter, E.J. Parra & M.D. Shriver. 2000. Estimation of admixture and detection of link-
age in admixed populations by a Bayesian approach: application to African-American populations. Ann. Hum. Genet. 64: 171-186.
Morera, B., R. Marin-Rojas & R. Barrantes. 2001 Análisis de varios marcadores genéticos clásicos en la población de Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 49: 1237-1252.
Morera, B., R. Barrantes & R. Marin-Rojas. 2003. Gene admixture in the Costa Rican population. Ann. Hum.
Genet. 67: 71-80.
Noronha, S. Maioria e minorias no Brasil. Rumos 26(196): 26-33.
Oliveira, R.C. & L. Castro Faria. 1971. Interethnic contact and the study of populations, pp. 41-59. In F.M. Salza- no (ed.). The Ongoing Evolution of Latin American Po- pulations. Charles C Thomas, Springfield.
Ottensooser, F. 1944. Cálculo do grau de mistura racial através dos grupos sangüíneos. Rev. Bras. Biol. 4: 531-537.
Ottensooser, F. 1962. Analysis of trihybrid populations. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 14: 278-280.
Parra, E.J., A. Marcini, J. Akey, J. Martinson, M.A. Batzer, R. Cooper, T. Forrester, D.B. Allison, R. Deka, R.E. Ferrell & M.D. Shriver. 1998. Estimating African American admixture proportions by use of population- specific alleles. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 63: 1839-1851.
Parra, F., R.C. Amado, J.R. Lambertucci, J. Rocha, C.M. Antunes & S.D.J. Pena. 2003. Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., USA 100: 177-182.
PNAD. 1976. Pesquisa Nacional por Amostras de Domicilios. Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Rio de Janeiro. Relethford, J.H. 2002. Apportionment of global genetic diversity based on craniometrics and skin color. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 118: 393-398.
Ribeiro, D. 1970. The culture-historical configurations of the American peoples. Curr. Anthropol. 11: 403-434.
Ribeiro, D. 1977. As Américas e a Civilização. Vozes, Petrópolis.
Ribeiro-dos-Santos, A.K.C., J.A. Pereira, M.F.R. Lobato, B.M. Carvalho, J.F. Guerreiro & S.E.B. Santos. 2002. Dissimilarities in the process of formation of Curiaú, a semi-isolated Afro-Brazilian population of the Amazon region. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 14: 440-447.
Roberts, D.F. & R.W. Hiorns. 1962. The dynamics of racial admixture. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 14: 261-277.
Roberts, D.F. & R.W. Hiorns. 1965. Methods of analysis of the genetic composition of a hybrid population.
Hum. Biol. 37: 38-43.
Rodas, C., N. Gelvez & G. Keyeux. 2003. Mitochondrial DNA studies show asymmetrical Amerindian admix-
ture in Afro-Colombian and Mestizo populations. Hum. Biol. 75:13-30.
Rosenberg, N.A., J.K. Pritchard, J.L. Weber, H.M. Cann, K.K. Kidd, L.A. Zhivotovsky & M.W. Feldman. 002. Genetic structure of human populations. Science 298: 2381-2385.
Salzano, F.M. 1997. Human races: myth, invention, or reality? Interciencia 22: 221-227.
Salzano, F.M. & M.C. Bortolini. 2002. The Evolution and Genetics of Latin American Populations. Cambridge University, Cambridge.
Salzano, F.M. & A.M. Hurtado. 2004. Lost Paradises and the Ethics of Research and Publication. Oxford University, New York.
Sans, M. 2000. Admixture studies in Latin America: from the 20 th to the 21 st century. Hum. Biol. 72: 155-177.
Shriver, M.D., M.W. Smith, L. Jin, A. Marcini, J.M. Akey, R. Deka & R.E. Ferrell. 1997. Ethnic-affiliation esti- mation by use of population-specific DNA markers. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 60: 957-964.
Shriver, M.D., E.J. Parra, S. Dios, C. Bonilla, H. Norton, C. Jovel, C. Pfaff, C. Jones, A. Massac, N. Cameron, A. Baron, T. Jackson, G. Argyropoulos, L. Jin, C.J. Hoggart, P.M. McKeigue & R.A. Kittles. 2003. Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry and admixture mapping. Hum. Genet. 112: 387-399.
Silva, N.V. 1987. Distância social e casamento inter-racialno Brasil. Est. Afro-Asiat. 14: 54-83.
Silva, N.V. 1994. Uma nota sobre “raça social” no Brasil.Est. Afro-Asiat. 26: 67-80.
Stone, A.C., R.C. Griffiths, S.L. Zegura & M.F. Hammer. 2002. High levels of Y-chromosome nucleotide diversity in the genus Pan. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., USA 99: 43-48.
Szathmáry, E.J.E. & T.E. Reed. 1978. Calculation of the maximum amount of gene admixture in a hybrid population. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 48: 29-34.
Templeton, A.R. 1999. Human races: a genetic and evolutionary perspective. Am. Anthropol. 100: 632-650.
The International SNP Map Working Group. 2001. A map of human genome sequence variation containing 1.42 million single nucleotide polymorphisms. Nature 409: 928-933.
Wagley, C. 1971. The formation of the American population, pp. 19-39. In F.M. Salzano (ed.). The Ongoing
Evolution of Latin American Populations. Chales C Thomas, Springfield.
Wang, J. 2003. Maximum-likelihood estimation of admixture proportions from genetic data. Genetics 164: 747-765.
Comentarios
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.
Derechos de autor 2004 Revista de Biología Tropical