Editorial

The beginning of this second decade of the XXI century has taken us by unprecedented surprise both globally and in particular in the Central American isthmus. First of all, the emergency caused by COVID-19 has placed the globe on vigil; throughout the whole world, the pandemic has revealed who we are as societies and cultures. In other words, the inequalities that exist both at a global and internal level of each nation or region have been exposed, the response capability of each political regime to their citizens has been shown, and conversely, of their citizens towards their leaders. Consumer society has been badly hurt and is clamoring for re-opening. Others believe an evil plan is being orchestrated to damage the pettiest of interests, and they used that to deny the scientific explanations of the pandemic and climate change. All in all, without considering imagery, the truth is that these situations will have serious and profound consequences in our societies, particularly for those who are most vulnerable.

Still under the astonishment and uncertainty of the effects of the pandemic, we were approached in November of 2020 by the Hurricanes -which then turned into tropical storms – Eta and Iota-, both of them entering Nicaragua head-on to then wonder into Honduran territory. The indirect consequences, and the fact that this happened to an isthmus, were severe in Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, and Costa Rica. Just as with the pandemic, natural disaster once again revealed what for so long had been warned in the region: the exposure of the most defenseless populations to the serious dangers caused by oversight, lack of planning, but above all, to the excessive overexploitation of nature and the absence of each state's involvement in planning and citizen protection policies.

In 2020 Anuario also writes its own story. In May of this year, the transfer of the journal from where it had been located for more than forty years, from Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales (IIS) to the deanship of the Faculty of Social Sciences of the Universidad de Costa Rica, was effective thanks to the unconditional support of its dean, Ph. D. Isabel Avendaño Flores.

We also want to inform our readers that the Editorial Board of the journal has decided to switch the periodicity of publication; therefore, Anuario will now be of continuous publication. The immediacy that most academic journals operate in nowadays compels us to take this step to adapt to the changing environment that requires us to optimize the editorial management task. Thus, from Volume 47 on –which we are now working on and includes a dossier on Bicentenary, COVID-19, and Social Sciences in Central America–, all articles will now be published on our website as soon as the corresponding editorial processes are finished.

Thanks to the efforts of its previous directors, Ph. D. Carlos Sandoval García and Ph. D. Dennis Arias Mora along with Ph. D. Rina Cáceres Gómez and Ph. D. Elisabeth Cunin, a dossier about Belize was planned, in view of the scarcity of publications about this Anglophone nation located in Central America. The search for the body of investigators that participated in this dossier and the rigorous selection and editing of the articles was carried out by the academics Aïda Ramírez Romero and Carlos Correa Angulo. Aïda Ramírez Romero holds a Ph. D. in Sociology, she is a member of the Migration et Societé (URMIS) Laboratory and Laboratorio Mixto Internacional LMI-MESO [International Mixed Laboratory], mobility, governance, and resources in the Central American Basin of IRD-CIESAS-CLACSO Costa Rica. Carlos Correa Angulo holds a Ph. D. in Anthropology and works for Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Superiores en Antropología Social [Center for Research and Higher Studies and Social Anthropology] (CIESAS), Mexico. He completed his postdoctoral stay at the University of Manchester, England, where he participated in the Cultures of Anti-racism in Latin America (CARLA) project. He belongs to the Laboratorio Mixto Internacional [International Mixed Laboratory] LMI-MESO mobility, governance, and resources in the Central American Basin IRD-CIESAS-CLACSO, Costa Rica.

The dossier aims to open a door to have greater knowledge about the society, economy, history, politics, and culture of this small but diverse isthmic nation. Nestled between Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras, Belize is a Mesoamerican nation with a view of the Caribbean and the Anglophone culture with all of its wide diversity, to which there is also a rich Mayan and Garifuna heritage. The weight of the Spanish colonial history of the Kingdom of Guatemala laid the foundations of the countries considered to be “Central American” today. Belize in that meantime was being shaped while facing the Caribbean and the coasts of the isthmus. In fact, well into the XX century, Belize's cultural influence was still felt on Central American shores and islands such as Roatan, Utila, Guanaja, the banana ports of the Honduran coast and the Mosquitia, especially among the population of Jamaican and English origin. This influx was notable, for example, in media such as Radio Belize or the sale of “boledo” lottery from that country. The branches from many families also persist among the people living in the coasts of Honduras and the inhabitants of Belize, preserved through regional migration for labor.

The dossier consists of twelve articles written by well-known specialists about Belize and the Caribbean, and it also achieves a broad interdisciplinary perspective of topics such as colonialism and imperialism, history, geopolitics and foreign policy, economics, society and demographics, multilingual practices, literature compared to Central American and the Caribbean genre, among others. The first text of the dossier titled “La pertenencia centroamericana: Belice entre países vecinos” [Central American Membership: Belize Among Neighboring Countries] written by our dossier editors, Carlos Correa and Aïda Ramírez, is at the same time a presentation and analysis of the historical consolidation of the national state in Belize in light of the particularities of its colonial ties, its border status, and its multiethnic and multicultural population.

“Un viaje de ida y vuelta. Diálogos entre Alejandro Joseph de Guelle y James Cook” [A round trip. Dialogues between Alejandro Joseph de Guelle and James Cook], an article written by Ana Cervera, is an analysis of two characters involved in the geopolitical events on the Yucatan-Belize border in the XVIII century, events which allowed the eventual consolidation of the English in Belize's coast, with great autonomy from the imperial power hubs. On the other hand, Robin Schaffer contributes with his work “Belling the Cat: Exploring Alignment Between the Church and State in Belize's Education System”, on the historical relations between the church and the state, which condition the education system. Following the historical line, Harry Jonathan Dominguez Barboza writes “Historia colonial del sur de la ciudad de Belice. Espacios marginales y exclusión en el Caribe centroamericano” [Colonial history of the south of Belize City. Marginal spaces and exclusion in the Central American Caribbean], which shows the spatial inequalities in the city of Belize and the arrangement of an area in the southern part of this town, very unequal and marginal by the way, despite its rich historical and cultural background.

Joel Wainwright finds the gestation of the State of Belize in “The Colonial Origins of the State in Southern Belize”, in which he argues that any explanation about the origins of the Belizean state must start from a historical-geographical analysis of its society and politics. In particular, the author states that to understand its establishment, one must first know about the relation between class and race, as well as the problematic presence of the postcolonial state in southern Belize at the end of the XIX century. Continuing the analysis of the consolidation of the nation in Belize, Reynaldo Chi Aguilar writes “George Cadle Price y la consolidación de una nación” [George Cadle Price and the consolidation of a nation], in which he discusses Cadle's role in Belize's independence. This process was extremely complex both from the point of view of colonial rupture and from the series of actors that were involved.

The variety of actors in colonial and contemporary Belize contributes enormously to the cultural richness of this country. Thus, Néstor Véliz Catalán writes “Contribuyendo a la historia colonial de Belice: Explicando la presencia hindú en la Honduras británica” [Contributing to the Colonial History of Belize: Explaining the Hindu Presence in British Honduras] in the 19th century. The author wonders whether the presence of Hindus in Belize was the result of a diaspora, labor migration or another form of mobilization.

Victor Bulmer-Thomas writes “Performance, Structure and Policy in the Belize Economy” in which he analyses Belize's economy from its independence (1981) up to the present, noting that among its main changes are the exports in the services sector and the population increase, both due to natural growth and internal migration. Other important features mentioned here are owed to debt growth and increased poverty in the country.

In a society with such a diverse origin, studies on multilingualism become fundamental. In this dossier, Nicté Fuller Medina presents his work “Belizean Varieties of Spanish. Language Contact and Plurilingual Practices”, which depicts how Spanish meets the English and Creole languages to create a very particular cultural practice. In turn, Margaret Shrimpton Masson discusses literature from Belize and its connections to the insular Caribbean, in texts that evoke the national image through topics such as women and migration and borders, in her text “Leyendo Belice. Escritores contemporáneos, entre el Caribe y Centroamérica” [Reading Belize. Contemporary writers, between the Caribbean and Central America].

The last articles belong to Rodrigo Véliz Estrada and Assad Shoman. The first writes “El más importante asunto internacional”: Belice, el Imperio británico y la política exterior guatemalteca en la posguerra (1945-1948)” [“The Most Important International Affair”: Belize, the British Empire and Guatemalan Foreign Policy in the Post-War Period (1945-1948)], in which he recaps the incident that almost caused a war between Guatemala and Great Britain in the context of the end of World War II and the start of the Cold War in Latin America. Moreover, Assad Shoman narrates his diplomatic experiences during the dialogue process exchanged by the republics of Belize and Guatemala in his work “La resolución de conflictos territoriales. El caso del proceso de conciliación Belice-Guatemala. (2000-2020)” [The Resolution of Territorial Conflicts. The Case of the Belize-Guatemala Conciliation Process (2000-2020)]. In particular, Shoman refers to a moment in the mediate and immediate history between these two nations, which culminated in the planning of a referendum in 2019.

Additionally, the articles section of this present issue (46) consists of ten texts. The first of these “Centroamérica: el apoyo oscilante a democracias en convulsión entre 1996 y 2018” [Central America: the Oscillating Support for Democracies in Convulsion Between 1996 and 2018], by Luis Guillermo Velasquez Pérez, makes an analysis based on the “Latinobarómetro” (1996-2018), Central America's political culture all throughout the isthmus, in which predominate some processes that the author calls “counter-democratic in democracy”, which limit the formation of a democratic political culture in our societies. In this political framework, the article “Autoritarismo, violencia y élites en Nicaragua. Reflexiones sobre la crisis (2018-2019)” [Authoritarianism, Violence, and Elites in Nicaragua. Reflections on the Crisis (2018-2019)], by Antonio Monte Casablanca and Juan Pablo Gómez, studies the case of Nicaragua characterized by long-term authoritarianism, the political crisis, and violence in this Central American country, coupled with the use of intraelite alliances typical of the political behavior in the ending years of the XX century and the beginning of the XXI century.

Continuing our studies about Nicaragua, Harley Ricardo Morales Pon writes “Reconfiguración de las fronteras sociales y simbólicas en el campo del trabajo urbano en Nicaragua 1980-2002. El caso de las personas clasificadas ´informales´” [Reconfiguration of Social and Symbolic Boundaries in the Field of Urban Work in Nicaragua 1980-2002. The Case of People Classified as “Informal”], during the period of the Sandinista Revolution and the establishment of neoliberalism in the country during the period indicated. It concludes with a case study on the organizational process carried out by the collective called Confederación de Trabajadores por Cuenta Propia [Confederation of Self-Employed Workers]. The last article about Nicaragua analyses the internal situation during Daniel Ortega's regime, in particular the tension between democracy and authoritarianism in the country, which materialized into violence against the 2018 social movement, written by Hloreley Osorio Mercado and Rony Rodríguez Ramírez and entitled “Crítica y Crisis en Nicaragua: la tensión entre democracia y capitalismo” [Criticism and Crisis in Nicaragua: the tension between democracy and capitalism].

“La gran causa nuestra. La unidad y el modernismo literario centroamericano” [The Great Cause of Ours. Unity and Literary Modernism of Central America], article by Margarita Rojas González and Flora Ovares, looks into the relation between modernism and the idea of Central American unity. The authors analyze the emblematic figures of this period such as Rubén Darío, Francisco Gavidia, Máximo Soto Hall, and Alberto Masferrer, who published novels, poems, short stories, and essays on the subject. These people created an imagery of the Great Central American Homeland, flourishing and peaceful. And about Costa Rica, they emphasized that its nonviolent life would allow for the strengthening and unification of literature.

By Gustavo Fuchs, we publish “¿Campaña del miedo? Agenda temática y opinión pública en las elecciones presidenciales del 2014 en Costa Rica” [Campaign of Fear? Thematic Agenda and Public Opinion in the 2014 Presidential Elections in Costa Rica], which addresses the 2014 election campaign in La Nación newspaper and the newscast Telenoticias: it shows that the selected topics were based on subjective approaches, which, in turn, were essential for the votes that were cast in the first round of elections of the year we mentioned above. From an environmental perspective Alberto Gutiérrez Arguedas and Carlos Granados Chaverri wrote the article “Nacionalismo, frontera y excepcionalismo verde en Costa Rica” [Nationalism, Border, and Green Exceptionalism in Costa Rica], based on historical geography and political ecology. They analyze the “green” imagery that has been built internationally around the country, as well as a new form of nationalism that has been created in the country based on it. The authors argue that the frontier perspective is fundamental to understand the national identity both in the XX century and the part of the XXI century we have lived so far.

Alexia Ugalde Quesada writes “´Caínes despiadados… Caínes invasores´. La invasión del 10 de diciembre de 1948 a Costa Rica en perspectiva nacional y transnacional” [Ruthless Cains... Invading Cains. The December 10, 1948 Invasion of Costa Rica in a National and Transnational Perspective], where he discusses the December 10, 1948 invasion after the civil war. In addition, the author contends that, during the post-war period, the political violence endured through a number of institutions and laws, leading certain actors to carry out the aforementioned invasion.

“La Organización de Estados Centroamericanos. ODECA: un capítulo en la historia de la integración centroamericana. 1950-1991” [The Organization of Central American States. ODECA: a Chapter in the History of Central American Integration. 1950-1991], by Edgar Solano Muñoz, studies the origins of the Organización de Estados Centroamericanos (ODECA) [Organization of Central American States] between 1951-1991 and its crisis between 1960 and 1980. Central America has experienced three forms of regional integration: the República Federal Centroamericana [Central American Federal Republic], the Organización de Estados Centroamericanos [Organization of Central American States], and the Sistema de Integración Centroamericana [Central American Integration System]. In this article, it is argued that the ODECA emerged in 1951 as part of the United States geopolitics in the framework of the Cold War.

Randall Andrés Chaves Zamora in “¡No más hippies! Identidad juvenil, memoria y pánico en la Guerra Fría: el mayo de 1968 en Costa Rica” [No More Hippies! Youth Identity, Memory, and Panic in the Cold War: in May 1968 in Costa Rica] studies the discussions generated about the presence of groups of young hippies in the country, the response of the authorities, and the public opinion regarding it. In short, the article is an analysis of the identities of the youth in Costa Rica in the context of the Cold War. The AECA also presents the document “Encuentro “Nicaragua 1970-2019: De la revolución a la insurrección” [Meeting “Nicaragua 1970-2019: From Revolution to Insurrection] prepared by Sergio Villena Fiengo. This activity took place between August 26th and August 30th, 2019 and was coordinated by the Institute of Social Research in collaboration with the Vice-Chancellor of Social Action of the Universidad de Costa Rica. Its main goal was to group both social actors and analysts of the process to analyze the situation experienced in that country since the triumph of the Sandinista Revolution in 1979 up to the civic insurrection of 2018.

This issue closes with 5 reviews. The first of these refers to the book by Rafael Obando Andrade “De objeto a sujeto. Los esclavos ante la legislación y el poder colonial en Centroamérica, 1532-1600” [Object to Subject. Slaves Before Colonial Law and Power in Central America, 1532-1600], published in San Salvador by UCA editors in 2019; it is reviewed by Dorde Cuvardic García. The text of Natalia Marinis “Desplazadas por la guerra Estado, género y violencia en la región triqui” [Displaced by State War, Gender, and Violence in the Triqui Region], published in Mexico by Casa Chata publishing house and CIESAS in 2019, was analyzed by Dolores Figueroa Romero. The review of Claudia Rueda's book, “Students of Revolution: Youth, Protest and Coalition Building in Somoza-era Nicaragua”, published in Austin, Texas by the University of Texas Press in 2019, had Randall Chaves Zamora in charge.

The recent COVID-19 pandemic in Nicaragua is presented in the book “COVID-19. El caso de Nicaragua. Aportes para enfrentar la pandemia” [COVID-19. The Case of Nicaragua. Contributions to Face the Pandemic], coordinated by Jorge Huete-Pérez, written by several authors, and edited by the series Ciencia, Técnica y Sociedad from the Academia de Ciencias de Nicaragua, Managua, 2020, reviewed by José María Gutiérrez Gutiérrez. Jorge Rovira Mas reviews José María Gutiérrez Gutiérrez´s book: ¨Reflexiones desde la academia. Universidad, ciencia y sociedad¨ [Reflections from the Academy. University, Science, and Society], published in San Jose by The Arlekín Publishing House at the end of 2018.

The year 2020 will leave us with many lessons as humanity, as communities, and as academics. Being grateful will be one of them. As a journal, we are indebted to the Anuario's work team, especially its editor Ariana Alpízar Lobo because without her selfless guidance and work this issue would not have been possible. Also, with our assistant Laura Zúñiga Campos, who carefully reviewed the texts and collaborated with the translations and other tasks of her office. To all our authors, main players in this process without whom Anuario would be meaningless. To our reviewing clerks as well, who contribute greatly from anonymity with the process and editorial quality.

A special thanks to our Editorial Board for their support in the decisive moments of Anuario during this year; Carlos Sandoval García, Eugenia Ibarra Rojas, Jorge Rovira Mas, César Villegas Herrera, Denia Román Solano, Ronald Alfaro Redondo, and Tania Rodríguez Echavarría. Also to Ph. D. Isabel Avendaño Flores, dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences for her valuable management to welcome us to the Faculty and her unconditional support to achieve the goals of the journal.

Our Central American and centroamericanista audience, students, teachers, academics, and the general public are Anuario de Estudios Centroamericanos reason to exist because through their reading and reflections, these pages are enriched and the knowledge generated here contributes to the knowledge of the societies of an isthmus that needs solidarity in these ill-fated days.

The Editorial Board of the AECA in its November 19, 2020 session agreed to move to the continuous publication basis to speed up the editorial process. This means that the articles, documents, and reviews to be published will be circulated as soon as they have met all the quality control requirements mandated by the journal and are found to be ready to be directed to the public. This will speed up the process to get from the approval of the text to its publication stage, which will be a notable contribution to the authors, who await the prompt publication of the results of their research and other activities. It is worth mentioning that the date will be added to each published text. With these changes, the journal guarantees authors and researchers a faster delivery of their publications, which will make the results of the research efforts of the authors, work teams and, in general, the hard work of Universidad de Costa Rica to provide the academic, national, and international community with updated publications.

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